Spinoza on mechanism

Spinoza, Benedict de (also Benedictus and Baruch, and Despinoza). Ethica in Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata ("Ethics, Presented in the Manner of a Geometrical Proof" [our trans.], written 1662-75, publ. 1677). Available with other relevant works and extensive apparatus in The Collected Works of Spinoza. Edwin Curley, ed. and trans. Vol. 1. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1985.

Extends, and modifies, R. Descartes's mechanism from matter and body to include mind and even God, for a totally deterministic system. In his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus ("A Theologico-Political Treatise," written 1665-70, publ. 1670), BdS advises rulers against treating human beings as if we were "beasts or puppets" (ch. 20; R. H. M. Elwes trans.); but BdS became notorious—unjustly—for the idea that nonhuman animals are machines, and sees humans as part of a nature that is pantheistic but material and radically unfree. For soul "acting according to certain laws, like a spiritual automaton," see The Emendation of the Intellect, paragraph 85 (Curley 37). For humans as highly sophisticated mechanisms (our word), see esp. Ethics Part III, Preface and scholium (i.e., note) to proposition 2 (Curley 491-92, 494-97). See in this Category of the List, R. Descartes; T. Hobbes, D. Hofstadter; J. R. Munson and R. C. York; D. S. Robinson; C. Sagan, "Life"; J. C. J. Smart; S. E. Toulmin; R. A. Watson; R. S. Westfall.